Resume Akuntansi Internasional Bab 5-7

Fadlillah Firdaus
20208470
4EB01

BAB 5

PELAPORAN DAN PENGUNGKAPAN

PERKEMBANGAN PENGUNGKAPAN

Standard dan praktik pengungkapan dipengaruhi oleh sumber-sumber keuangan, undang-undang, berhubungan dengan politik dan ekonomi, tingkat perkembangan ekonomi, pendidikan, budaya, dan faktor-faktor lainnya.

Di amerika Serikat, Inggris Raya dan Anglo-Amerika lainnya, ekuitas pasar palong berjasa dalam menyediakan keuangan bagi perusahaan dan menjadi sangat maju, Sedangkan, Di negara-negara seperti Perancis, Jerman, Jepang dan berbagai negara dengan pasar yang baru muncul, pemegang saham tetap berkonsentrasi dan bank secara tradisional telah menjadi sumber keuangan utama perusahaan.

PENGUNGKAPAN SUKARELA

Manajer harus memiliki insiatif untuk mengungkap informasi mengenai performa perusahaan secara sukarela. Keuntungan dari pengungkapan tersebut mungkin menyangkut biaya transaksi yang lebih rendah dalam perdagangan sekuritas perusahaan, bunga yang lebih tinggi dari analis keuangan dan investor, meningkatkan likuiditas saham dan biaya modal yang lebih rendah. Laporan yang diungkapkan meliputi tuntunan bagaimana perusahaan bisa menggambarkan dan menjelaskan investasi potensial mereka kepada investor.

KEBUTUHAN PENGATURAN PENGUNGKAPAN

Frost dan Lang membahas dua objek investor berorientasi pasar, yaitu:

1)      Proteksi Investor

Investor dijamin dengan informasi dan dilindungi dengan pelaksanaan dan pengawasan peraturan pasar.

2)      Kualitas Pasar

Pasar adalah adil, tersusun, efisien, dan bebas dari penyalahgunaan dan perbuatan jahat.

Frost dan Lang juga mengulas empat prinsip pada investor yang berorientasi pasar yang harus dijalankan, yaitu:

1)      Keefektifan biaya.

2)      Fleksibilitas dan kebebasan pasar.

3)      Laporan keuangan transparan dan pengungkapan menyeluruh.

4)      Perlakuan setara perusahaan domestic dan asing.

PEMBAHASAN LAPORAN KEUANGAN SEC AMERIKA SERIKAT

SEC secara umum mewajibkan pendaftar asing untuk melengkapi informasi keuangan yang pada hakikatnya sama dengan yang dibutuhkan perusahaan domestic. Syarat laporan SEC secara umum konsisten dengan sasaran proteksi investor dan kualitas pasar. Akan tetapi, kebutuhan laporan yang kuat mungkin merahin tujuan proteksi investor pada kesempatan mengurangi biaya investasi modal atau mengesankan biaya transaksi tinggi dalam berinvestasi.

 PRAKTIK PELAPORAN DAN PENGUNGKAPAN

1. PENGUNGKAPAN INFORMASI PROGRESIF

Pengungkapan informasi progresif adalah pertimbangan tinggi yang relevan di dalam kesetaraan pasar dunia.

Istilah informasi progresif meliputi :

• Perkiraan pendapatan, laba (rugi), arus kas, pengeluaran modal dan hal-hal keuangan lainnya.
• Tujuan informasi mengenai kinerja dan posisi ekonomi di masa depan yang tidak menentu daripada perkiraan menyangkut ptoyek, periode fiscal, dan proyeksi jumlah.
• Laporan program dan sasaran manajemen untuk usaha masa depan.

2.      PENGUNGKAPAN SEGMEN

Pengungkapan segmen lebih membantu pengguna laporan keuangan untuk memahami bagaimana bagian-bagian perusahaan menata semuanya, baik secara usaha reveal ataupun letak geografis.

3.      PELAPORAN PERTANGGUNGJAWABAN SOSIAL

Laporan pertanggungjawaban sosial mengacu pda pengukuran dan komunikasi informasi tentang pengaruh perusahaan terhadap kemakmuran pegawai, komunitas sosial dan lingkungan.

Informasi mengenai kesejahteraan pegawai menyangkut hal-hal: kondisi pekerjaan; keamanan bekerja;kesempatan yang sama; aneka ragam pekerjaan; dan buruh anak-anak.

PENGUNGKAPAN KHUSUS BAGI PENGGUNA LAPORAN KEUANGAN NON-DOMESTIK DAN PRINSIP AKUNTANSI YANG DIGUNAKAN

Pengungkapan meliputi:

1)      “laporan ulang yang mudah” tentang informasi keuangan ke dalam mata uang asing.

2)      pembahasan perbedaan antara prinsip akuntansi yang digunakan dalam laporan keuangan utama dan beberapa ketetapan prinsip akuntansi lainnya.

3)      posisi dan laporan keuangan ulang terbatas di ketetapan standar akuntansi yang kedua.

4)      sebuah laporan keuangan lengkap disiapkan yang berhubungan dengan ketetapan prinsip akuntansi kedua.

PENGUNGKAPAN PENGELOLAAN PERUSAHAAN

Pengelolaan perusahaan berhubungan dengan sarana internal di mana perusahaan dijalankan atau dikendalikan-tanggungjawab, akuntabilitas, hubungan di antara pemegang saham, anggota direksi, dan manajer yang disusun supaya mencapai pemegang saham, anggota direksi dan manajer yang disusun dupaya mencapai sasaran perusahaan

Empat komponen dari rancangan kerja menurut Dallas, yaitu:

1)      Infrastruktur pasar

• pola kepemilikan
• tingkatan di mana perusahaan terdaftar secara umum
• hak-hak kepemilikan
• pasar untuk kendali korporasi
• struktur dewan

2)      Lingkungan hukum

• jenis system hukum
• hak-hak pemegang saham/penyokong dana
• ketetapan perusahaan/sekuritas

3)      Lingkungan peraturan

• dewan pengatur dan bidangnya
• celah/kelengkapan pengaturan
• persyaratan informasi dan waktu
• efektivitas pelaksanaan

4)      Infrastruktur informasi

• standar akuntansi
• standar audit
• struktur akuntansi/profesi audit

PENGUNGKAPAN DAN LAPORAN BISNIS DI INTERNET

Web juga bisa digunakan untuk penyebaran informasi interaktif yang tidak serupa dengan media cetak. Sebuah perkembangan penting yang akan memfasilitasi pelaporan bisnis melalui Web adalah eXtensible Business Reporting Language (XBRL). XBRL adalah sebuah system penamaan informasi atau data. Pengelompokkan XBRL telah dikembangkan untuk GAAP Amerika Serikat dan Jerman serta IFRS, yang mampu membuat persiapan laporan keuangan sesuai dengan semua standar akuntansi.

PENGUNGKAPAN LAPORAN TAHUNAN DI NEGARA-NEGARA DENGAN PASAR BARU MUNCUL

Pengungkapan dalam laporan tahunan perusahaan dari negara dengan pasar baru muncul biasanya kurang luas dan kurang dapat dipercaya daripada semua perusahaan dari negara berkembang. Level pengungkapan yang rendah di negara dengan pasar yang baru muncul konsisten dengan system pemerintahan dan keuangan perusahaan mereka.

IMPLIKASI BAGI PENGGUNA LAPORAN KEUANGAN DAN MANAJER

Manajer dinegara dengan tradisi pengungkapan yang rendah harus memahami apakah pemakaian kebijakan yang mempertinggi pengungkapan bisa memberikan keuntungan yang signifikan untuk perusahaan mereka. Manajer yang memutuskan untuk mempertinggi pengungkapan di area investor dan analisis yang dianggap penting, seperti segmen dan rekonsiliasi pengungkapan, bisa mendatangkan keuntungan yang kompetitif terhadap perusahaan dengan kebijakan pengungkapan yang terbatas.

Sumber : Choi, Frederick D. S. dan Gary K. Meek. International Accounting. Buku 1 Edisi 6. 2010: Salemba Empat.

BAB 6

TRANSLASI MATA UANG ASING

        A.  ALASAN TRANSLASI MATA UANG ASING

            Banyak permasalahan yang berhubungan dengan translasi mata uang asing muncul dari fakta bahwa nilai relatif mata uang asing hampir tidak pernah stabil. Tingkat variabelitas nilai tukar, dikombinasikan dengan perbedaan antara metode translasi mata uang asing dan penanganan terhadap translasi mata uang asing keuntungan dan kerugian, semakin mempersulit untuk dapat membandingkan hasil suatu perusahaan dengan prusahaan lainnya, ataupun perbandingan dalam suatu perusahaan dari periode satu dengan periode lainnya.

Terdapat tiga alasan tambahan dalam translasi mata uang asing : mencatat transaksi mata uang asing, mempehitungkan efeknya perusahaan terhadap translasi mata uang`, dan berkomunikasi dengan peminat saham asing. Akhirnya kenaikan jumlah investasi internasional meningkatkan kebutuhan untuk menyampaikan informasi pembukuan perusahaan yang berdomisili pada satu negara kepada para investor di negara lainnya.

B.  LATAR BELAKANG DAN TERMINOLOGI

Translasi mata uang asing merupakan translasi sederhana dalam ekspresi moneter, seperti saat neraca menggunakan poundsterling Inggris kemudian disajikan ulang dalam padanannya dolar AS. Mata uang pada perdagangan negara-negara utama dibeli atau dijual pada pasar global. Peserta pasar termasuk bank dan perantara keuangan lainnya, perusahaan bisnis, individu, dan pedagang internasional dihubungkan oleh jaringan komunikasi modern.

 Transaksi mata uang asing bisa terjadi langsung di pasar spot, pasar forward, atau pasar swap. Nearaca hasil translasi mata uang asing dilakukan bai dengan translasi langsung ataupun translasi tidak langsung.

C.  EFEK LAPORAN KEUANGAN TERHADAP KURS ALTERNATIF TRANSLASI

MATA UANG ASING
              Tiga kurs translasi dibawah ini dapat digunakan untuk mentranskasikan neraca mata uang asing terhadap mata uang domestik. Pertama, kurs saat ini, adalah kurs yang berlaku pada tanggal laporan keuangan. Kedua, adalah kurs historis, yang merupakan translasi mata uang yang berlaku saat aset dengan mata uang asing pertama kali didapatkan atau asaat kewajiban dengan mata uang asing pertama kali muncul. yang terakhir, kurs rata-rata, yaitu nilai rat-rata biasa atau dengan pembobotan naik pada kurs historis atau saat itu. Kurs historis pada umumnya menjaga padanannya biaya awal item mata uang asing dalam laporan keuangan domestik.
Transaksi Mata Uang Asing
Perbedaan karakteristik pada transaksi mata uang asing adalah perjanjian yang dipengaruhi oleh mata uang asing.
Transaksi mata uang asing mungkin menggunakan satu mata uang akan tetapi dihitung dengan mata uang lain. Untuk mengerti alasannya, pertama-tama pertimbangkan gagasan mengenai mata uang fungsional.
FAS No. 52 keputusan pihak yang berwenang AS pada akuntansi untuk mata uang asing, mengamanatkan persyaratan untuk transaksi mata uang asing
1. Pada tanggal transaksi diakui, setiap aset, kewajiban, pendapatan, beban, keuntungan atau kerugian yang muncul harus dihitung dan dicatat dalam mata uang fungsional dalam catatan secara keseluruhan dengan pengaruh nilai tukar pada saat itu.
2. Pada setiap tanggal neraca, neraca tercatat yang menggunakan mata uang selain mata uang fungsional ik pada pencatatan harus disesuaikan untuk menggambarkan nilai tuka saat itu.
Terdapat dua cara untuk melakukan pembukuan bagi keuntungan dan kerugian transaksi
1. Perspektif Transaksi Tunggal
Pada transaksi tunggal, penyesuaian nilai tukar (baik stabil atau tidak) dimasukkan sebagai penyesuaian terhadap pembukuan transaksi awal dengan alasan bahwa transaksi dan perjanjiannya merupakan kejadian tunggal

2. Perspektif Ganda
Pada perspektif transaksi ganda, penerimaan piutang krona mempertimbangkan kejadian yang terpisah dari penjualan yang memberikan tambahan pendapatan.
Untuk tujuan keseragaman FAS No.52 membutuhkan metode pembukuan transaksi ganda untuk transaksi mata uang asing.

D. TRANSLASI MATA UANG ASING
     Perusahaan yang beroperasi secara internasioanal menggunakan berbagai metode untuk  

menunjukkan aset, utang, pendapatan, dan beban dalam mata uang domestik yang

dinyatakan dalam mata uang asing. Metode mata uang asing, seperti
1. Metode Nilai Tukar tunggal
Metode nilai tukar tunggal , yang diketahui juga sebagai metode kurs saat ini, telah lama populer di EropaMetode ini mengaplikasikan nilai tukar tunggal, harga penutupan atau harga saat itu, terhadap semua saham dan utang asing. Pada metode ini, laporan keuangan operasional asing memiliki laporan domisili tersendiri
2. Metode Nilai Tukar Ganda
Metode nilai tukar ganda mengombinasikan kurs saat ini dan kurs historis dalam proses translasi mata uang asingnya
a. Metode Current-Noncurrent
Pada metode ini, aset lancar yang dimiliki anak perusahaan saat itu dan utang lancar ditranslasikan ke dalam mata uang induk perusahaan mereka pada laporan keuangannya dengan kurs saat ini.
b. Metode Moneter-Nonmoneter
Metode ini juga menggunakan skema klasifikasi neraca untuk menentukan nilai tukar mata uang asing yang sesuai. Aset dan kewajiban moneter ditranslasikan dalam kurs saat ini.
c. Metode Kurs Sementara
Dengan metode ini, translasi mata uang asing tidak mengubah sifat sebuah item yang dihitung, hal tersebut hanya mengubah unit perhitungan saja. Pada metode ini, item moneter seperti kas, piutang, dan utang ditranslasikan dalam kurs saat itu.

Keuntungan dan Kerugian Translasi Mata Uang Asing
Secara internasional, perlakuan akuntansi terhadap penyesuaian tersebut sama banyaknya dengan prosedur translasi mata uang asing.Pendekatan akuntansi untuk penyesuaian translasi mta uang asing mulai dari penangguhan hingga tidak ada penangguan dengan pendekatan hybrid pada keduanya
a. Penangguhan
b.Penangguhan dan Amortisasi
c. Penangguhan sebagian
d. Tidak ada penangguhan

E. PENGEMBANGAN AKUNTANSI TRANSLASI MATA UANG ASING
Praktik akuntansi mata uang asing telah berkembang seiring waktu dalam respons terhadap meningkatnya kompleksitas operasional multinasional dan perubahan dalam sistem moneter internasional

·         Pra-1965
Sebelum 1965 praktik translasi mata uang asing pada banyak perusahaan AS dipandu oleh Bab 12 Accounting Research Bulletin No.43. Pernyataan tersebut mengadvokasi metode current-noncurrent. Keuntungan dan kerugian transaksi ditambahkan secara langsung terhadap pendapatan. Keuntungan dan kerugian translasi mata uang asing dimasukkan ke dalam keuntungan selama periode yang ada. Kerugiannya diakui dalam pendapatan lancar.

·         1965-1975
ARB No.43 memperoleh beberapa pengecualian khusus dalam metode current-noncurrent. Dalam keadaan khusus persediaan dapat ditranslasikan dengan kurs historis. Lebih jauh, translasi mata uang asing seluruh pembayaran dan penerimaan mata uang asing pada kurs saat ini tersebut diperbolehkan setelah accounting principles board opinion No.6 dikeluarkan pada tahun 1965. Perusahaan tersebut memberikan pilihan translasi mata uang asing lain bagi perusahaan dalam ARB No.43

·         1975-1981
Untuk mengakhiri perbedaan metode pada standar translasi mata uang asing sebelumnya, Financial acccounting Standards board (FASB) mengeluarkan FAS No.8 pada tahun 1975. Pernyataan ini secara segnifikan mengubah praktik perusahaan asing AS dalam memasukkan GAAP AS dengan menerima metode translasi mata uang asing kurs sementaraFAS No. 8 ternyata kontroversial. Sementara beberapa menghargai usulan yang teoritis, banyak yang tidak menyetujui atas ditorsi yang ditimbulkan dalam pendapatan perusahaan.

·         1981-sekarang
Pada bulan mei 1978, FASB mengundang komentar masyarakat tentang 12 keputusan pertamanya. FASB mempertimbangkan FAS No.8 dan setelah beragam public meeting dan dua penjelasan berkas, akhirnya mengeluarkan statement of Financial Accounting Standards No.52 pada tahun 1981.

F. GAMBARAN STANDARD NO.52/STANDAR AKUNTANSI INTERNASIONAL
     Tujuan translasi mata uang asing dalam FAS No.8 berbeda secara substansi dari FAS  No.52 FAS No.8, mengadopsi perspektif induk perusahaan dengan memberi syarat bahwa laporan keuangan mata uang asing dipresentasikan jika seluruh transasi mengikuti mata uang yang digunakan induk perusahaan. Lebih jauh, mata uang fungsional menunjukkan pilihan metode translasi mata uang asing yang digunakan untuk tujuan usaha gabungan dan disposisi keuntungan dan kerugian nilai tukar.
Translasi Saat Mata Uang Lokal adalah Mata Uang Fungsional
Jika mata uang fungsional dalah mata uang asing yang tercatat dan dimasukkan, maka laporan keuangannya ditraslasikan ke dalam dolar menggunakan metode kurs saat ini. Hasil keuntungan dan kerugian traslasi mata uang asing diungkapkan dalam komponen yang terpisah dalam ekuitas gabungan.Hal tersebut menjaga rasio laporan keuangan karena dikalkulasikan dari pernyataan mata uang lokal.
Translasi saat Mata Uang Induk Perusahaan adalah Mata Uang Fungsional
Saat mata uang induk perusahaan adalah mata uang fungsional asing gabungan, laporan keuangan mata uang asing tersebut akan dihitung terhadap dolar menggunakan metode kurs sementara. Seluruh keuntungan dan kerugian translasi mata uang asing muncul dari proses translasi mata uang asing dimasukkan dalam perhitungan current-periode income

Translasi saat Mata Uang Asing adalah Mata Uang Fungsional
Usaha gabungan asing mungkin akan tetap mencatat pembukuannya dalam satu mata uang asing saat mata uang fungsionalnya adalah mata uang asing lain. Dalam situasi ini, laporan keuangan akan dihitung ulang dari mata uang lokal ke dalam mata uang fungsional (metode kurs sementara) lalu ditranslasikan ke dalam dolar AS menggunakan kurs saat ini.

G.  PERMASALAHAN PERHITUNGAN
      Para pengguna akun gabungan harus mengerti beberapa permasalahan jika mereka ingin menginterpretasikan dengan tepat efek keuangan akibat translasi mata uang asing. Beberapa permasalahan tersebut adalah
a. Perspektif Laporan
b. Apa yang terjadi dengan Harga Perolehan
c. Konsep Pendapatan
d. Laba Terkelola

Sumber : Choi, Frederick D. S. dan Gary K. Meek. International Accounting. Buku 1 Edisi 6.2010: Salemba Empat.

BAB 7

PELAPORAN KEUANGAN DAN PERUBAHAN HARGA

1. Perubahan Harga
Perubahan harga umum terjadi apabila secara rata-rata harga seluruh barang dan jasa dalam suatu perekonomian mengalami perubahan. Unit-unit moneter memperoleh keuntungan atau mengalami kerugian daya beli. Kenaikan harga secara keseluruhan disebut sebagai inflasi (inflation), sedangkan penurunan harga disebut sebagai deflasi (deflation).
Perubahan harga spesifik mengacu pada perubahan dalam harga barang atau jasa tertentu yang disebabkan oleh perubahan dalam permintaan dan penawaran. Jadi laju inflasi per tahun dalam suatu negara mungkin berkisar sekitar 5%, sementara harga satu unit apartemen dengan satu kamar tidur mungkin meningkat sebesar 50% selama periode yang sama.

2. Laporan Keuangan Memiliki Potensi Untuk Menyesatkan Selama Periode Perubahan Harga
Selama periode inflasi, nilai aktiva yang dicatat sebesar biaya akuisisi awalnya jarang mencerminkan nilai terkininya (yang lebih tinggi). Nilai aktiva yang lebih rendah menghasilkan beban yang dinilai lebih rendah dan laba dinilai lebih tinggi. Ketidakakuratan pengukuran ini mendistorsi :
(1) proyeksi keuangan yang didasarkan pada data seri waktu historis,
(2) anggaran yang menjadi dasar pengukuran kinerja, dan
(3) data kinerja yang tidak dapat mengisolasi pengaruh inflasi yang tidak dapat dikendalikan. Laba yang dinilai lebih pada gilirannya akan menyebabkan :
a.Kenaikan dalam proporsi pajak.
b.Permintaan deviden lebih banyak dari pemegang saham.
c.Permintaan gaji dan upah yang lebih tinggi dari pada pekerja.
d.Tindakan yang merugikan dari negara tuan rumah (pengenaan pajak lebih besar).

3. Jenis Penyesuaian Inflasi
Penyesuaian Tingkat Harga Umum. Jumlah mata uang yang disesuaikan terhadap perubahan tingkat harga umum (daya beli) disebut sebagai mata uang konstan biaya histories atau ekuivalen daya beli umum. Jumlah mata uang yang belum disesuaikan sedemikian rupa disebut sebagai jumlah nominal. Sebagai contoh, selama periode kenaikan harga, aktiva berumur panjang yang dilaporkan didalam neraca sebesar biaya akuisisi awalnya dinyatakan dalam mata uang nominal

Penyesuaian Biaya Kini.Model biaya kini berbeda dengan akuntansi yang konvesional dalam dua aspek utama. Pertama, aktiva tetap dinilai berdasarkan biaya kini dan bukan biaya historis. Kedua, laba adalah jumlah sumber daya yang dapat didistribusikan oleh perusahaan dalam suatu periode (tanpa memperhitungkan komponen pajak), namun tetap dapat mempertahankan kapasitas produktif atau modal fisik perusahaan.

4. Sudut Pandang Internasional Terhadap Akuntansi Inflasi
Berbagai negara telah mencoba metode inflasi yang berbeda. Praktik aktual juga mencerminkan pertimbangan paragmatis seperti parahnya laju inflasi nasional dan pandangan pihak yang secara langsung dipengaruhi oleh angka akuntansi inflasi. Mengamati beberapa metode akuntansi inflasi yang berbeda sangat bermanfaat pada saat menilai kondisi paling mutakhir saat ini.
Amerika Serikat
Pada tahun 1979, FSAB mengeluarkan Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Keuangan (statement of financial accounting standards-SFAS) No. 33. Berjudul “pelaporan keuangan dan perubahan harga”, pernyataan ini mengharuskan perusahaan-perusahaan AS yang memiliki persediaan dan aktiva tetap.
Banyak pengguna dan penyusun informasi keuangan yang telah sesuai dengan SFAS No.33 mengemukakan bahwa :
1. Pengungkapan ganda yang diwajibkan oleh FASB membingungkan.
2. Biaya untuk penyusunan pengungkapan ganda ini terlalu besar.
3. Pengungkapan daya beli konstan biaya historis tidak terlalu bermanfaat bila dibandingkan data biaya kini.
Inggris
Komite Standar Akuntansi Inggris (Accounting Standard Commitee-ASC) menerbitkan Pernyataan Standard Praktik Akuntansi 16 (Statement Of Standard Accounting Practice-SSAP 16). Perbedaan SSAP 16 dengan SFAS 33 yaitu :
1. Apabila standar AS mengharuskan akuntansi dolar konstan dan biaya kini, SSAP 16 mengadopsi hanya metode biaya kini untuk pelaporan eksternal.
2. Apabila penyesuaian inflasi AS berpusat pad laporan laba rugi, laporan biaya kini di Inggris mewajibkan baik laporan laba rugi dan neraca biaya kini, beserta pencatatan penjelasan.
Standar di Inggris memperbolehkan tiga pilihan pelaporan :
1. Menyajikan akun-akun biaya kini sebagai laporan keuangan dasar dengan akun-akun pelengkap biaya historis.
2. Menyajikan akun-akun biaya historis sebagai laporan keuangan dasar dengan akun-akun pelengkap biaya kini.
3. Menyediakan akun-akun biaya kini sebagai satu-satunya akun yang dilengkapi dengan informasi biaya historis yang memadai.

Badan Standar Akuntansi Internasional
IASB telah menyimpulkan bahwa laporan posisi keuangan dan kinerja operasi dalam mata uang lokal menjadi tidak berarti lagi dalam suatu lingkungan yang mengalami hiperinflasi. Secara khusus laporan keuangan suatu perusahaan yang melakukan pelaporan dalam mata uang perekonomian hiperinflasi, apakah didasarkan pada kerangka penilaian biaya historis atau biaya kini, harus disajikan ulang sesuai dengan daya beli konstan pada tanggal neraca. Aturan ini juga berlaku untuk angka terkait dalam periode sebelumnya. Keuntungan atau kerugian daya beli yang terkait dengan posisi kewajiban atau aktiva moneter bersih dimasukan kedalam laba kini. Perusahaan yang melakukan pelaporan juga harus mengungkapkan :
a. Fakta bahwa penyajian ulang untuk perubahan dalam daya beli unit pengukuran telah dilakukan
b. Kerangka dasar penilaian aktiva yang digunakan dalam laporan keuangan utama yaitu penilaian biaya historis atau biaya kini
c. Identitas dan tingkat indeks harga pada tanggal neraca, beserta dengan perubahannya selama periode pelaporan
d. Keuntungan atau kerugian moneter bersih selama periode tersebut

5. Isu- isu mengenai inflasi
Terdapat 4 isu akuntansi inflasi diantaranya :
a. Apakah dolar konstan atau biaya kini yang lebih baik mengukur pengaruh inflasi.
b. Perlakuan akuntansi terhadap keuntungan dan kerugian inflasi.
c. Akuntansi inflasi luar negeri.
d. Menghindari fenomena kejatuhan ganda.

Sumber : Choi, Frederick D. S. dan Gary K. Meek. International Accounting. Buku 1 Edisi 6. 2010: Salemba Empat.

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING: HARMONIZATION VERSUS STANDARDIZATION

       Group : SOUTH AFRICA

Benny Nugraha (20208245)

Fadlillah Firdaus (20208470)

Haris Umarsyah ( 20208569)

Toni Jatmiko ( 21208239)

Wahyudi Pratama (21208276 )

4EB01

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING:

HARMONIZATION VERSUS STANDARDIZATION

A. BACKGROUND

A survey conducted by Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu International in 1992 to 400 medium-sized

companies in twenty countries the advanced show, that their reasons for doing business in the market international growth is due to chance (84%), for reduce reliance on the domestic economy (39%), meet market demand (34%) and cheaper operating costs (24%) (Iqbal, Melcher, Elmallah, 1997: 5). The survey shows one of the fact that there tendency of many companies to do business globally and International Accounting: Harmonization Versus Standardization (Arja Sadhiarta) not only in business in the country of origin. Sold in domestic market considered to no longer provide the expected benefits, while the market so open to overseas expansion.

Increasing trend of globalization in the economy increasingly look the existence of agreements

between countries in a particular region, such as the European Union (EU), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). Indonesia itself is one of the
eighteen APEC member countries.

The globalization of the economy also appeared with the advent of the crisis phenomena

exchange rates in some countries in Asia, including Indonesia, which began in Of 1997. Industry which relies strongly on imported raw materials is affected with this condition. Value of imported raw materials in domestic currency - in this case These dollars - rose sharply. Industries that depend strongly on the raw materials and domestic resources experienced the opposite. Sales of goods outside country to be very profitable if valued in domestic currency. New sale pricing in the domestic and overseas markets become
as simple as before the crisis.

Subsequent developments in Indonesia also showed the phenomenon interesting. Appreciation of

the rupiah against foreign currencies, although not re- on the exchange rate before the crisis, making the exporters began complained that its earnings fell when assessed in the domestic currency. The opposite occurs for the importers. Strengthening of the domestic currency - say dollars - and the weakening of foreign currencies - say, the dollar United States - make importers pay liabilities denominated in to foreign manufacturers in foreign countries judged to be less expensive than the currency
domestic.

Accounting as a provider of information for decision making economy is also influenced by the

business environment of continuous changed because of globalization, both good growing business environment, in a state of stagnation and depression. The existence of transactions between the state and accounting principles which differ between countries resulting in the appearance the need for harmonization of accounting standards around the world.

2. DISCUSSION

Understanding the International Accounting Iqbal, Melcher and Elmallah (1997:18) defines the

international accounting as the accounting for transactions between countries, the benchmarking principles accounting in different countries and harmonization of accounting standards in around the world.

A company became involved with the international accounting is on now get the chance to export

or import transactions. Export defined as sales to overseas firms and begins when the seller obtain purchase orders from domestic companies to foreign buyers. Kesulitankesulitan begin to arise when the domestic firm to conduct an investigation the feasibility of foreign acquirers. If the buyers are requested to provide financial information relating to the company, there is the possibility that financial information is not easily interpreted, given the assumptions of accounting and accounting procedures are not prevalent in the seller company. Most companies are just starting out in business may request international assistance to the bank or accounting firm with international expertise to analyze and interpret information The financially.

Another thing that must be anticipated if the buyer is paying in the eye foreign currency. For

example, a company in Indonesia to export the results products to companies in the United States, and the buyer pays in United States dollar. Domestic companies should anticipate a loss or the potential benefit that may arise due to changes in exchange rates between recorded as a purchase order by the time the payment is received.

Implementation of such exports involve many delivery companies, insurance, customs and other

supporting documents required widespread throughout the world. In this case of course also necessary to anticipate the any costs which generally involve the use of different currencies.

For imports, the above conditions will be met by the company otherwise foreign sellers.

Conditions that must be considered by the buyer firm domestic exchange rate is the domestic currency against foreign currency agreed as a denomination of payment. Included is payments to the forwarders and shipping companies if imports do provided free on board.

Involvement in the international accounting firm can not avoided when the company opened its

overseas operations, both of which only a production license to a company owned by another party outside country as well as the establishment of subsidiaries abroad. In the case of license, the company needs to develop an accounting system that allows the licensor to exercise supervision over the implementation of the agreement, royalty payments and technical assistance as well as recording revenue from outside country in relation to the tax to be paid by the company.

Accounting for subsidiaries operating in foreign countries must comply with rules set by

government authorities and institutions country concerned, which is different from the rules in the parent country company. Furthermore it should be made also for the management of information systems monitor, supervise and evaluate the operation of subsidiaries as well as making system to consolidate the results of parent company and subsidiary operations.

International accounting has become increasingly important with the number of multinational

companies (multinational corporation) or MNC operating in various countries in the areas of production, product development, marketing and distribution. Besides the capital market is also growing rapidly, supported by advances in communications technology and information to enable the transaction in international capital markets take place in real time basis.

Factors Affecting the Accounting System

Like the business world in general, and its accounting practices disclosure of financial

 information on companies in different countries are affected by various factors. Radebaugh and Gray (1997:47) mentions at least fourteen factors that affect the company's accounting system. Factors such is the nature of corporate ownership, business activities, sources of funding and capital markets, tax system, the existence and importance of the accounting profession, accounting education and research, political systems, social climate, the growth rate and economic development, inflation, regulatory systems, and accounting rules.

More details, Radebaugh and Gray describes the relationship between these factors
mentioned above with the following corporate accounting system.

a.       Nature of corporate ownership
The need for disclosure and accountability to found in the larger public companies are owned by the public compared with the family firm.

b.      Business activities
The accounting system is influenced by the type of business activity, such as agribusiness are different from manufacturing, or small companies with different multinational companies.

c.       Sources of funding
The need for disclosure and accountability to found in the larger public companies that have sources of funding from external shareholders as compared to the company with funding from banks or from funds family.

d.      Tax system
Countries like France and Germany use the financial statements companies as the basis for determining income tax debt, while countries like the United States and Britain to use the report
which has been adapted to the financial rules of taxation as the basis determination of tax debts and submitted separately to the financial statements for shareholders.

e.       The existence and importance of accounting profession
Accounting profession that is more advanced in developed countries also make the system accounting used by more advanced than in countries that still implement a centralized accounting system and uniform.

f.       Accounting education and research
Accounting education and research are both less run in countries is growing. Professional development was also influenced by accounting education and research quality.

g.       The political system
Political system run by a very influential country in the The accounting system is made to describe the philosophy and political objectives in country, as does the choice of centralized planning (central planning) or privatization (private enterprises).

h.      Social climate
Social climate is defined as the attitude of respect for workers' rights and concern for the environment. Information relating to these things are generally influenced the social system.

i.        Rate of economic growth and development
Changes in economic structure from agriculture to manufacturing will
showing the other side of the accounting system, including the start
accounting for depreciation of machinery. Services industry also gave rise
consideration of the recording of intangible assets such as brands, goodwill and
human resources.

j.        The inflation rate
The onset of hyperinflation in some countries in South America
create the thought of using another approach as
alternative to historical cost approach.

k.      Regulatory system
In countries such as France and Germany are using the civil codes,
accounting rules are used tends to detailed and comprehensive,
different from the United States and Britain are using the common law.

l.        The accounting rules
Accounting standards and rules set out in a particular country is certainly not
completely the same with other countries. Role in determining the accounting profession
accounting standards and rules were more common in countries that
have entered the professional rules in the rules of the company,
as in Britain and the United States.

Meanwhile, Christopher Nobes and Robert Parker (1995:11) describes the seven factors that lead

 tosignificant differences in the scale internationally in the development of accounting systems and practices. Factors these include (1) the legal system, (2) the owner of the funds, (3) the influence of the system taxation, and (4) stability of the accounting profession. (5) inflation, (6) accounting theory and
(7) accidents of history.

a.         The legal system
Company regulations, including in this case is a system and procedures accounting, much influenced by the legal system in force in a country. Some countries such as France, Italy, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands adopted legal system which is classified in the codified Roman law. Codified in law, rules associated with the basic idea of ​​moral and justice, which tends into a doctrine. Meanwhile, countries like Britain, the United States and British Commonwealth countries adopting a common
law. In common law, the existence of an attempted answer to the cases specific and did not make a general formulation.

b.        Sources of funding
By source of funding, the company can be grouped into two. The first group is a company that gets most of the funds of the shareholders in the capital market (shareholders). Group The second is a company that gets most of the funds of the bank, state or family funds. Generally, in countries with most company owned by shareholders but the shareholders are not have access to internal information, the more demands on the disclosure (disclosure), examination (audit) and unbiased information (Fair information).

c.          Tax system
The extent to which the tax system may affect the accounting system is to see the extent of tax laws to determine measurements accounting (accounting measurement). In Germany, according to the tax accounting should be similar to commercial accounting. Whereas in many other countries such as Britain, the United States and also includes Indonesia, there aturanaturan different between taxation and commercial companies. Examples are The most obvious of these is depreciation.

d.        Accounting profession
Bodies were formed as a container of different professions in each country, and the results of the rules or standards are affected by the shape, authority and members of such bodies. In some countries found that the separation of the accounting profession, as a tax expert or just as the company accountant. Members of a governing body accounting standards can consist only of the public accountant or involving parties from the business world, industry, government and among educators. The level of education and experience in the practical world as a condition of a person to be a member of the agency will also determine the quality of accounting standards and rules as output produced.

e.         Inflation
In countries with a level inlasi reach hundreds of percent each year, as in South America, the use of general price level adjustment method become irrelevant in light of the need to analyze the reports
finances are more precise than continue to use historical cost.

f.         Theory of Accounting
Accounting theory greatly affect the implementation of accounting practices as was the case in the Netherlands. In this country accounting theorists said that users of financial statements will get an appraisal the reasonable performance of a company if the accountants are allowed to use judgment to select and display the numbers particular. In this case suggested the use of replacement cost information. One example of the effect of accounting theory to accounting practice is with the formulation of conceptual framework.

g.         Accidents of History
Accounting systems and practices can not be separated from political and economic conditions in the country concerned. Certain events usually provide an immediate impact in the application of certain methods. Crisis economy in the United States at the end of the 1920s led to a standard accounting which requires the disclosure (disclosure) of data finance. For Indonesia, the exchange rate crisis in mid-1997 led to the emergence of a statement or interpretation relating to the use of foreign currency in financial reporting and treatment of foreign exchange. Colonization also led countries occupied by itself following the accounting systems and practices that countries possess.

Accounting Standards Benchmarking example in Indonesia and the United Union

The above description shows that the preparation of accounting standards including accounting

 practices in a country different from the practices in other countries. To provide an overview of the different accounting standards between state, the following is a list of accounting standards that have been published in Indonesia and the United States (Table 1 and Table 2). This comparison is only a list of standards according to the number issued in each state and does not discuss or comment on the contents of each the standard.

List of Accounting Standards in Indonesia (SAK)
1. Presentation of Financial Statements
2. Statement of Cash Flows
3. Interim Financial Report
4. Consolidated Financial Statements
5. According to Segment Reporting Financial Information
6. Accounting and Reporting for Development Stage Company in
7. Disclosure of Parties Have a Special Relationship
8. Contingencies and Subsequent Events
9. Presentation of Current Assets and Liabilities - has been replaced IAS 1
10. Transactions in Foreign Currencies
11. Financial Statements in Foreign Currencies Regarding Section

12. Financial Reporting Participation in Control Joint Operations and Assets
13. Accounting for Investments
14. Stocks
15. Accounting for Investments in Associates
16. Fixed Assets and Other Assets
17. Accounting for Depreciation
18. Accounting for Pension Funds
19. Intangible Assets
20. Research and Development Costs
21. Accounting for Equity
22. Accounting for Business Combinations
23. Income
24. Accounting for Retirement Benefits Costs
25. Profit or Loss for the Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies
26. Borrowing Costs
27. Accounting for Cooperatives
28. Accounting for Insurance Losses
29. Accounting for Oil and Gas
30. Accounting for Leases
31. Accounting for Banks
32. Accounting for Forestry
33. Accounting General Mining
34. Accounting for Construction Contracts
35. Accounting for Revenue Services Communications
36. Accounting for Life Insurance
37. Accounting Operation of Toll Road
38. Accounting for Restructuring
39. Accounting for Joint Operation
40. Accounting for Changes in Equity of Subsidiaries / Associates
41. Accounting for Warrants
42. Accounting of Securities Companies
43. Accounting for Factoring
44. Accounting for Real Estate Activities
45. Financial Reporting Profit Organizations Nir
46. Accounting for Income Taxes
47. Accounting for Land
48. Impairment of Assets
49. Accounting for Mutual Funds
50. Investments in Securities
51. Accounting for Quasi Reorganization
52. Accounting Reporting Currencies
53. Accounting for Stock-Based Compensation
54. Accounting for Troubled Debt Restructuring and Receivables
55. Accounting for Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities
Source: IAI, the Financial Accounting Standards 1999, Salemba Four, October 1998

List of Accounting Standards in the United States (FASB Statement)
1. Disclosure of Foreign Currency Translation Information
2. Accounting for Research and Development Costs
3. Reporting Accounting Changes in Interim Financial Statements-an Amendment of APB Opinion     No.. 28
4. Reporting Gains and Losses from Extinguishment of Debt-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 30
5. Accounting for contingencies
6. Classification of Short-Term Expected to Be Refinanced obligations-an Amendment of ARB No.. 43, Chapter 3A
7. Accounting and Reporting by Development Stage Enterprises
8. Accounting for the Translation of Foreign Currency Transactions and Foreign Currency Financial Statements
9. Accounting for Income Taxes: Oil and Gas Producing Companies-an Amendment of APB Opinions No.. 11 and 23
10. Extension of "Grandfather" Provisions for Business Combinations-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 16
11. Accounting for contingencies: Transition Method-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 5
12. Accounting for Certain Marketable Securities
13. Accounting for Leases
14. Financial Reporting for segments of a Business Enterprise
15. Accounting by Debtors and Creditors for Troubled Debt Restructurings
16. Prior Period Adjustments
17. Accounting for Leases: Initial Direct Costs-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 13
18 Financial Reporting for segments of a Business Enterprise: Interim Financial Statements-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 14
19. Financial Accounting and Reporting by Oil and Gas Producing Companies
20. Accounting for Forward Exchange Contracts-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 8
21. Suspension of the Reporting of Earnings per Share and Segment Information by Nonpublic Enterprises-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 15 and FASB Statement No. 14
22. Changes in the Provisions of Lease Agreements Resulting from Refundings of Tax-Exempt Debt-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 13
23. Inception of the Lease-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 13
24. Reporting Segment Information in Financial Statements That Are Presented in Another Enterprise's Financial Report-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 14
25. Suspension of Certain Accounting Requirements for Oil and Gas Producing Companies-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 19
26. Profit Recognition on Sales-Type Leases of Real Estate-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 13
27. Classification of Renewals or Extensions of Existing Sales-Type or Direct Financing Leases-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 13
28. Accounting for Sales with Leasebacks-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 13
29. Determining Contingent Rentals-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 13
30. Disclosure of Information about Major Customers-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 14
31. Accounting for Tax Benefits Related to U.K. Tax Legislation Concerning Stock Relief
32. Specialized Accounting and Reporting Principles and Practices in AICPA Statements of Position and Guides on Accounting and Auditing Matters-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 20
33. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices
34. capitalization of Interest Cost
35. Accounting and Reporting by Defined Benefit Pension Plans
36. Disclosure of Pension Information-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 8
37. Balance Sheet Classification of Deferred Income Taxes-an Amendment of APB No Opinion. 11
38 Accounting for contingencies Preacquisition of Purchased Enterprises-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 16
39. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices: Specialized Assets-Mining and Oil and Gas-a supplement to FASB Statement No. 33
40. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices: Specialized Assets-Timberlands and Growing Timber-a supplement to FASB Statement No. 33
41. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices: Specialized Assets-Income- Producing Real Estate-a supplement to FASB Statement No. 33
42. Determining Materiality for capitalization of Interest Cost-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 34
43. Accounting for compensated absences
44. Accounting for Intangible Assets of Motor Carriers-an Amendment of Chapter 5 of ARB No. 43 and an interpretation of APB Opinions 17 and 30
45. Accounting for Franchise Fee Revenue
46. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices: Motion Picture Films
47. Disclosure of Long-Term obligations
48. Revenue Recognition When Right of Return Exists
49. Accounting for Product Financing Arrangements
50. Financial Reporting in the Record and Music Industry
51. Financial Reporting by Cable Television Companies
52. Foreign Currency Translation
53. Financial Reporting by Producers and Distributors of Motion Picture Films
54. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices: Investment Companies-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 33
55. Determining whether a Convertible Security is a Common Stock Equivalentan Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 15
56. Designation of AICPA Guide and Statement of Position (SOP) 81-1 on Contractor Accounting and SOP 81-2 Concerning Hospital-Related Organizations as preferable for Purposes of Applying APB Opinion 20-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 32
57. Related Party Disclosures
58. capitalization of Interest Cost in Financial Statements That Include Investments accounted for by the Equity Method-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 34
59. Deferral of the Effective Date of Certain Accounting Requirements for Pension Plans of State and Local Governmental Units-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 35
60. Accounting and Reporting by Insurance Enterprises
61. Accounting for Title Plant
62. capitalization of Interest Cost in Situations Involving Certain Tax-Exempt Borrowings and Certain Gifts and Grants-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 34
63. Financial Reporting by Broadcasters
64. Extinguishments of Debt Made to Satisfy Sinking-Fund Requirements-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 4
65. Accounting for Certain Mortgage Banking Activities
66. Accounting for Sales of Real Estate
67. Accounting for Costs and Initial Rental Operations of Real Estate Projects
68. Research and Development Arrangements
69. Disclosures about Oil and Gas Producing Activities-an Amendment of FASB Statements 19, 25, 33, and 39
70. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices: Foreign Currency Translation-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 33
71. Accounting for the Effects of Certain Types of Regulation
72. Accounting for Certain Acquisitions of Banking or Thrift Institutions-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 17, an interpretation of APB Opinions 16 and 17, and an Amendment of FASB Interpretation No.. 9
73. Reporting a Change in Accounting for Railroad Track Structures-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 20
74. Accounting for Special Termination Benefits Paid to Employees
75. Deferral of the Effective Date of Certain Accounting Requirements for Pension Plans of State and Local Governmental Units-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 35
76. Extinguishment of Debt-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 26
77. Reporting by Transferors for Transfers of Receivables with recourse
78. Classification of obligations That Are Callable by the Creditor's Amendment of ARB No.. 43, Chapter 3A
79. Elimination of Certain Disclosures for Business Combinations by Nonpublic Enterprises-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 16
80.  Accounting for Futures Contracts
81. Disclosure of Postretirement Health Care and Life Insurance Benefits
82. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices: Elimination of Certain Disclosures-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 33
83. Designation of AICPA Guides and Statement of Position on Accounting by Brokers and Dealers in Securities, by Employee Benefit Plans, and by Banks as preferable for Purposes of Applying APB Opinion 20-an Amendment FASB Statement No. And APB Opinion No. 32. 30 and a rescission of FASB Interpretation No. 10
84. Induced Conversions of Convertible Debt-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 26
85. Yield Test for Determining whether a Convertible Security is a Common Stock Equivalent-an Amendment of APB Opinion No.. 15
86. Accounting for the Costs of Computer Software to Be Sold, Leased, or Otherwise marketed
87. Employers' Accounting for Pensions
88. Employers' Accounting for Settlements and Curtailments of Defined Benefit Pension Plans and for Termination Benefits
89. Financial Reporting and Changing Prices
90. Regulated Enterprises-Accounting for Abandonments and Disallowances of Plant Costs-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 71
91. Accounting for Nonrefundable Fees and Costs Associated with Originating or Acquiring Loans and Initial Direct Costs of Leases-an Amendment of FASB No statements. 13, 60, and 65 and a rescission of FASB Statement No. 17
92. Regulated Enterprises-Accounting for Phase-in Plans-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 71
93. Recognition of Depreciation by Not-for-Profit Organizations
94. Consolidation of All Majority-owned Subsidiaries-an Amendment of ARB No.. 51, with related Amendments of APB Opinion No.. And ARB No. 18. 43, Chapter 12
95. Statement of Cash Flows
96. Accounting for Income Taxes
97. Accounting and Reporting by Insurance Enterprises for Certain Long- Duration Contracts and for Realized Gains and Losses from the Sale of Investments
98. Accounting for Leases: Sale-Leaseback Transactions Involving Real Estate,
Sales-Type Leases of Real Estate, Definition of the Lease Term, and Initial
Direct Costs of Direct Financing Leases-an Amendment of FASB Statements
No. 13, 66, and 91 and a rescission of FASB Statement No. 26 and Technical Bulletin No. 79-11
99. Deferral of the Effective Date of Recognition of Depreciation by Not-for-Profit Organizations-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 93
100. Accounting for Income Taxes-Deferral of the Effective Date of FASB Statement No. 96-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 96
101. Regulated Enterprises-Accounting for the Discontinuation of Application of FASB Statement No. 71
102. Statement of Cash Flows-exemption of Certain Enterprises and Classification of Cash Flows from Certain Securities Acquired for Resale-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 95
103. Accounting for Income Taxes-Deferral of the Effective Date of FASB Statement No. 96-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 96
104. Statement of Cash Flows-Net Reporting of Certain Cash Receipts and Cash Payments and Classification of Cash Flows from Hedging Transactions-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 95
105. Disclosure of Information about Financial Instruments with Off-Balance- Sheet Risk and Financial Instruments with Concentrations of Credit Risk
106. Employers' Accounting for Postretirement Benefits Other Than Pensions
107. Disclosures about Fair Value of Financial Instruments
108. Accounting for Income Taxes-Deferral of the Effective Date of FASB Statement No. 96 - an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 96
109. Accounting for Income Taxes
110. Reporting by Defined Benefit Pension Plans of Investment Contracts-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 35
111. Rescission of FASB Statement No. 32 and Technical Corrections
112. Employers' Accounting for Postemployment Benefits-an Amendment of FASB No statements. 5 and 43
113. Accounting and Reporting for Reinsurance of Short-Duration and Long- Duration Contracts
114. Accounting by Creditors for Impairment of a Loan-an Amendment of FASB No statements. 5 and 15
115. Accounting for Certain Investments in Debt and Equity Securities
116. Accounting for Contributions Received and Contributions Made
117. Financial Statements of Not-for-Profit Organizations
118. Accounting by Creditors for Impairment of a Loan-Income Recognition and Disclosures-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 114
119. Disclosure about Derivative Financial Instruments and Fair Value of Financial Instruments
120. Accounting and Reporting by Mutual Life Insurance Enterprises and by Insurance Enterprises for Certain Long-Duration Participating Contracts-an Amendment of FASB Statements 60, 97, and 113 and Interpretation No.. 40
121. Accounting for the Impairment of Long-Lived Assets and for Long-Lived Assets to Be disposed Of
122. Accounting for Mortgage Servicing Rights-an Amendment of FASB Statement No. 65
123. Accounting for Stock-Based Compensation
124. Accounting for Certain Investments Held by Not-for-Profit Organizations
125. Accounting for Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extinguishments of Liabilities
126. exemption from Certain Required Disclosures about Financial Instruments for Certain Nonpublic Entities-an Amendment to FASB Statement No. 107
127. Deferral of the Effective Date of Certain Provisions of FASB Statement No.
125. - an Amendment to FASB Statement No. 125
128. Earnings per Share
129. Disclosure of Information about Capital Structure
130. Reporting Comprehensive Income
131. Disclosures about segments of an Enterprise and Related Information
132. Employers' Disclosures about Pensions and Other Postretirement Benefits-an a Amendment to FASB Statements No. 87, 88, and 106.
133. Accounting for Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities
Source: FASB, Statement of Financial Accounting Standards: Summaries and Status,

From the data in advance, it appears that the standards have relied heavily the conditions of each country, although seen from the title by default, standards have some similarities. Quite a few are also standard on accounting The United States in the form of an amendment (Amendment) and the recall (Rescission) standards have been published previously.

Harmonization versus Standardization

Globalization also carries the implication that things that were once considered the authority and

 responsibility of each country is no longer possible influenced by the international community. Similarly, the reporting financial and accounting standards.

One of the qualitative characteristics of accounting information is able to compared

(comparability), including accounting information also international should also be compared as it is important in world trade and international investment. In the event wanted to obtain full broad comparability internationally applicable, required standardization international accounting standards.

On the other hand, the existence of certain factors in a country, create a continuing need national

 accounting standards applicable in the country them. It can be seen in the comparison view of accounting standards finance in Indonesia and the United States in advance. In Accounting Standards Indonesia's Financial Accounting for Cooperatives which are not necessarily needed in the United States. Based on this, the less likely and less feasible to make a full international accounting standards and comprehensive.

Concept is more popular than the standardization for bridge the wide variety of accounting

standards in various countries is the concept harmonization. Harmonization of accounting standards is defined as minimizing of differences in accounting standards in various countries (Iqbal, 1997:35). Harmonization can also be interpreted as a group of countries that agree an accounting standard that is similar, but requires the implementation that do not follow the standard should be disclosed and reconciled with the standard agreed. Institutions that are active in harmonization efforts accounting standards, these include the IASC (International Accounting Standard Committee), the United Nations and the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). Some of those who benefited from the presence of This harmonization is the multinational corporations, accounting firms international trade organizations, as well as the IOSCO (International Organization of Securities Commissions).

IASC was founded in 1973 and consists of members of professional organizations accountants

 from ten countries. In 1999, IASC membership consists of 134 accounting profession organizations from 104 countries, including Indonesia. IASC goals are (1) formulate and publish accounting standards with respect to financial reporting and promote it to be widely accepted in around the world, and (2) work for the development and harmonization of standards and accounting procedures with respect to financial reporting. Some countries such as Singapore, Zimbabwe and Kuwait instead adopt International Accounting Standards as the accounting standards of their country.

IASC has IASC consultative group called the Consultative Group consisting of those who

represent the users of financial statements, financial statement maker, standards-making bodies, and observers from inter-governmental organizations. This group meets regularly to discuss the policies, principles and matters relating to the role of the IASC.

International accounting standards have been issued IASC can be seen in
List of International Accounting Standards (IAS)
1. Presentation of Financial Statements
2. Inventories
3. superseded by IAS 27 and IAS 28
4. Depreciation Accounting
5. Information to be Disclosed in Financial Statements - superseded by IAS 1
6. superseded by IAS 15
7. Cash Flow Statements
8. Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies
9. Research and Development Costs - superseded by IAS 38
10. contingencies occurring and Events After the Balance Sheet Date
11. Construction Contracts
12. Accounting for Taxes on Income
13. Presentation of Current Assets and Current Liabilities - superseded by IAS 1
14. Reporting Financial Information by Segment
15. Information Reflecting the Effects of Changing Prices
16. Property, Plant and Equipment
17. Accounting for Leases
18. Revenue
19. Retirement Benefit Costs
20. Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure Government Assistance
21. The Effect of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates
22. Business Combination
23. Borrowing Costs
24. Related Party Disclosures
25. Accounting for Investments
26. Accounting and Reporting by Retirement Benefit Plans
27. Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Investments in Subsidiaries
28. Accounting for Investments in Associates
29. Financial Reporting in hyperinflationary Economics
30. Disclosures in the Financial Statements of Banks and Similar Financial Institutions
31. Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures
32. Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation
33. Earnings Per Share
34. Interim Financial Reporting
35. Discontinuing Operations
36. Impairment of Assets
37. Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets
38. Intangible Assets
39. Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement
Source: IASC, IASC Standard List, www.iasc.org.uk/frame/cen2_1.htm, September 1999

FASB (Financial Accounting Standards Board), in its report that titled International Accounting

Standard Setting: A Vision for the Future, believes that the need for a set of accounting standards that are used throughout world both for financial reporting in the country and across countries. Without
mention that the method is performed to obtain a standard equal to the whole world as standardization, the FASB also did not state explicitly that this effort is the harmonization effort. FASB view that an international accounting standard should be (a) has a high quality by providing useful information to investors, creditors, and the maker other decisions in similar decisions about resource allocation power in the economy, and (b) make different accounting standards in various state becomes convergent or as closely as possible. FASB wants On the one hand the standardization of accounting standards but does not deny that the process toward standardization through the process of harmonization should be more targeted towards standardization.

Accounting standards which have high quality (high-quality) is a accounting standards that are

not biased, and results in a relevant information credible and useful for decision making by investors, creditors and other parties who take a similar decision. The standard is should be:

a.         Consistent with the underlying conceptual framework

b.        Avoid or minimize the existence of alternative accounting procedures, both implicitly or explicitly by considering the factor of comparability and consistency.

c.         Clear and comprehensive, so that standards can be understood by maker of financial statements, auditors examine the financial statements based on these standards, by the parties authorized to require use these standards as well as users of information produced based on these standards. FASB established three organizations saw the need for which will determine the system international accounting in the future, namely:

1.        International Standard Setter (ISS)
These organizations define, develop and promulgate international accounting standards. ISS is an

independent organization that has eight functions: (1) leadership (2) innovation, (3) relevance, (4) responsiveness, (5) Objectivity, (6) acceptability and credibility, (7) understandability and (8) accountability. ISS is an important characteristic
a. independent in decision making
b. run a fairly standard-setting process with the associated
with outside parties who will use the standard
c. have sufficient staff
d. have independent funding
e. monitored independently

2.        International Interpretation Committee (IIC)

It was created to express an opinion on the application of standard international accounting in order to obtain a consistent interpretation and application. IIC will guide the basic user and if necessary issue a sort of guide book as a complement to existing published standards.

3.        International Professional Group (IPG)
This organization consists of professional accountants from various organizations professionals in

various countries. IPG is the main activity is easier application of standards by ensuring adherence (compliance) to standards, a fairly standard deployment to the national level and educate users about the application of standards appropriate international accounting. How does the existence of an already existing IASC if it These are actually implemented. FASB assume that somehow a international accounting standard-setting organization was formed, the structure of the organization it should be possible eighth above functions work well. Structure organizations also need to enter the top five characteristics in order to developing international accounting standards are of high quality. Based on this thinking, an alternative that can be used in the future are (a) IASC could still exist with the structure as suggested revamping the FASB, or (b) formed a new organization with new structures such as the FASB recommended, will continue their stuff has been done by the IASC, or (c) modify the FASB to be more widely accepted around the world. The third alternative is based on the belief that the FASB has a role as a global leader in accounting standard setting.

3. CONCLUSION

Accounting standards can not be separated from environmental influences and conditions of

legal, social and economic one particular country. Those things are lead to an accounting standard in a country different from country other. Globalization appears among others from trading activities between countries and the emergence of multinational firms resulted in the emergence of the need an accounting standard that would apply broadly across the world.

Formation is one of the IASC standards harmonization efforts accounting is to make the

differences between accounting standards in many countries are becoming increasingly smaller. This harmonization should not eliminate accounting standards applicable in each country and also does not cover the possibility that international accounting standards developed by the IASC adopted into a country's national accounting standards.

FASB has the view that it should have one standard accounting international laws around the

world. For organizations that need to be established international accounting standard-setter with specific structures and processes. According to FASB, IASC could be modified to form the organization or
The new organization or modify the FASB itself.

REFERENCES

Financial Accounting Standards Board (1999), Summaries and Status of all FASB Statements,    

            www.rutgers.edu / Accounting / raw / FASB / public / index.html, September Of 1999.

______ (1999), International Accounting Standard Setting: A Vision for the Future- Report of the FASB,

            www.rutgers.edu / Accounting / raw / FASB, September 1999

International Accounting Standards Committee (1999), List of Current IASC Standards,

            www.iasc.org.uk/frame/cen2_1.htm

Iqbal, M. Zafar, Trini U. Melcher and Amin E. Elmallah (1997), International Accounting: A Global

            Perspective, Cincinnati, Ohio: South-Western College Publishing

Nobes, Christopher and Robert Parker (1995), Comparative International Accounting, The fourth edition,

            London: Prentice Hall International (UK) Limited

Radebaugh, Lee H., and Sidney J. Gray (1997), International Accounting and Multinational Enterprises,

            Fourth Edition, Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc..

Journal of Accounting & Finance Vol. 1, 2, November 1999: 144-161